Concept: Introduction, Thême et Variations

The PhD-research on the French composer and guitarist Napoléon Coste (1805-1883) by the author indicates the relation between his life and works in the very sense of the Romantic concept. The Romantic style is identifiable in his Parisian contemporaries Liszt, Berlioz and Chopin, to mention three influential composers as an example of an initial technical description of the elements of this musical style. They show an aesthetic attitude towards their music which is characterized by increasing expression, a Romanticism referring to biographical or contextual elements, inspired by nature, cities, landscapes, history, mystery of death and especially folklore, which goes beyond a circumstantial relation: their intention is to express Realism in music.^[1]Carl Dahlhaus: ‘Die Musik des 19. Jahrhunderts’ in: Dahlhaus, Carl ed.: Neues Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft, vol. VI, Wiesbaden, Athenaion, 1980-1995, p. 15-16; Charles Rosen: The … Continue reading These features can be found in Coste’s music. This essay may express the relation between life and music to be literarily rather than literally.

Romanticism arises at the height of Classicism, in about 1800, in literary circles in Germany and Austria centered around E.T.A. Hoffmann and the Romantic concept thus originates in German literature. Instrumental music is regarded as the most Romantic of the arts, more so than vocal music. But music itself does not play such an important role with the French Romantic writers, and as a result French Romanticism comes into existence later than its German counterpart.^[2]Rey M. Longyear: Nineteenth-century romanticism in music, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1969, p. 3, 6, 7. The word “Romantic” is used for the aesthetic norm of continuously intensified overexcitement of musical means and exaggerated individualization of the experience. It has individual feeling, unbridled fantasy, imitation and depiction, associative musical development, giving music concrete content, but condemning the listener to passivity as a consequence.^[3]Wolfgang Btticher: Einfhrung in die musikalische Romantik, Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1983, p. 15. The Romantic musicians are aware of the danger of this growing isolation. They attempt to bridge the gap, meeting the audience halfway by making narrative part of the music and cultivating folk song, in a typically Romantic attitude with even a mystical tinge, but embodying Realism at the same time.^[4]Alfred Einstein: Music in the Romantic Era, a history of musical thought in the 19th century, New York – London, Norton, 1947, repr. 1975, p. 37, 40.

The music is programmatic, comparabe to the words of an opera, transforming the instrumental work into drama. It is the expression of the fantastic and the extraordinary in art and in world view. A prime example of this is Berlioz’s Symphony fantastique, composed in 1830.^[5]Wolfgang Dömling: Hector Berlioz. Symphonie fantastique, München, Fink, 1985, p. 18, 57, 65, 67. The style is expressed by breaking through the principle of the eight-bar period, the application of varied rhythms and the declamatory style in anti-metrical figures, interchanging of tempo and intensive use of effects and many indications for character. In the harmony, remote tonalities occur, minor keys equal major keys, there are gliding modulations, progressions that are at times deceptive, harmony becomes modulating and cadences are used to change the mood instead of being structural principles.^[6]Friedrich Blume: Classic and Romantic Music, A Comprehensive Survey, New York – London, Norton, 1970, p. 95, 132-157. The Romantic phenomena exoticism, historicism and folkloricism can be described in musical terms and be identified in this music. Considering the instrumental music the independence of the phrase emerges in the way it is poeticized where improvisation is concerned as the inspiration of the performance and programmaticism in music. Thus, the aesthetics of sentiment found in compositions around 1830 is rooted in the aesthetics of the artist’s interpretation and its reception by the listener.^[7]Carl Dahlhaus: ‘Die Musik des 19. Jahrhunderts’ in: Dahlhaus, Carl ed.: Neues Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft, vol. VI, Wiesbaden, Athenaion, 1980-1995, p. 21; Carl Dahlhaus & Norbert … Continue reading

Around 1848 music’s Romantic affiliation is not affirmed but rather becomes subject to disparagement and doubt and is ultimately rejected. Romanticism is defined as a basic attitude with significant political and philosophical implications, not focused on formal features or compositional procedures.^[8]Ian Bent, ed.: Music theory in the age of Romanticism, Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 58. Nevertheless it is actually possible to identify such features and procedures in the compositions of the era. In form and titles as well as in musical style, characteristic references are found between the music of the three great Romantics and the guitar music of Coste. As a musician Coste is also part of the circles in which the Romantic concept is conceived.

Context: Souvenirs, Sept Morceaux Épisodiques

Napoléon Coste is born on the 27th of June 1805, a date that was not established until 1982 in Amondans in the département of Doubs in eastern France.^[9]Besançon, Archives départementales, acte de naissance Napoléon Coste, État Civil, Amondans, N, 1793-1872, 5 Mi 177: “L’an treize de la République le huit Messidor nous Jean-François … Continue reading The origin of the wrong date that existed before even derives from Coste himself, in his inscription in the freemasons’ lodge.^[10]http://www.vrijmetselaarsgilde.eu/Maconnieke%20Encyclopedie/Franc-M/fra-f-03.htm. He grows up in the neighbourhood of Ornans, to which he later dedicates several compositions, such as La Vallée d’Ornans opus 17 from his Souvenirs and Souvenir du Jura opus 44, in which he gives expression to memories of the region.^[11]Bibliographie de la France, vol. XLI, no. 29, 17 VII 1852, p. 432: “Nap. Coste. Souvenirs. Sept morceaux épisodiques pour la guitare.”; Coste-Schult, letter 15 X 1876: “Les … Continue reading

As a child, in 1813, he is in the Dutch town of Delfzijl with his father, a captain in the French army. He returns to France, passing the Zuiderzee and crossing the river Rhine.^[12]Dossier J.F. Coste, Château de Vincennes, 24e 815 [Item 28], p. 2, 3; [Item 31] p. 1: “Départ de l’Ems Oriental Rapport Militaire… Nous sommes alors au nombre de 5 combatteurs y … Continue reading The memory of these places also returns in his compositions Les Bords du Rhin opus 18, Delfzil opus 19 and Le Zuyderzée opus 20, also collected in his Souvenirs. All these compositions are original in such a way that they do not refer to any traditional music or folklore like the Classical guitar composers did in the “theme and variations” genre; they are of his own invention, developing the less rigid and freeer “fantaisie” genre.

In Valenciennes, where he lives as a youth, after a severe illness that took him months to recover from, he took up the guitar instead of pursuing his intended career as a military engineer.^[13]Coste-Hallberg, letter 25 II 1878: “Très jeune j’ai été initié aus mathématiques… Puis une afreuse maladie m’a privé pendant quinze mois de l’intelligence. … Continue reading There he starts his career as a guitarist in 1826, starts composing, and plays a duet in a concert with the traveling virtuoso Sagrini, a piece that must be Gran Variazioni Concertanti opus 35 by Giuliani.^[14]Coste-Schult, letter 17 IV 1875: “Longtemps avant en 1828 j’avais eu des relations en province avec Sagrini (à Valenciennes). Nous exécutons en public les grandes variations de Giuliani … Continue reading He also dedicates several compositions to this town in the north of France, Souvenirs de Flandres opus 5 and Les Cloches opus 21.^[15]Bibliographie de la France, vol. XXIV, no. 28, 11 VII 1835, p. 448: “Souvenir de Flandre: Marche: quatre valses et un rondo pour la guitare, par Nap. Coste, op. 5.”; vol XLI, no. 29,17 … Continue reading

At the end of 1828 he settles in Paris, where he stays for almost the rest of his artistic career. There, at the center of important musical developments, he joins the circles of musicians originating from Valenciennes, and of famous guitarists, including Carulli, Carcassi, Aguado and above all Sor, who is of great importance to him, as he studies harmony and counterpoint with him and becomes his friend, joining him in concerts.^[16]La France musicale, vol. I, no. 4, 21 I 1838, p. 6: “Le duo sur la guitare, exécuté par M. Sor et M. C., n’a pas produit un grand effet.”; no. 19, 15 IV 1838, p. 5: “M. … Continue reading His life in Paris is expressed in several programmatic compositions from his Souvenirs, Meulan opus 22 and Les Soirées d’Auteuil opus 23, music after Berlioz’ invention of musical drama.

Apart from the development away from the “theme and variation” genre towards the fantasy, there is also a decline of interest in opera motifs. Describing this effect leads to the following observation. Weigl’s opera Die Schweizerfamilie was performed in Paris with the title Emmeline in 1827, and Coste probably composed his Weigl variations in 1828, played it in Valenciennes in 1829 and published the work in Paris in 1830.^[17]Anik Devriès & François Lesure: Dictionnaire des éditeurs de musique français, Genève, Minkoff, 1979-1988, vol. II, p. 369, 372; Laureen Baillie: The Catalogue of Printed Music in the … Continue reading Gluck’s opera Armide played in Paris in 1831, and Coste published his Fantaisie Armide in 1832.^[18]Bibliographie de la France, vol. XXI, no. 33, 18 VIII 1832, p. 472: “Fantaisie pour la guitare, composée sur un motif du ballet d’Armide, par Nap. Coste, op. 4. Prix 4-50”; Hector … Continue reading This happens again with Bellini’s Norma, in Paris in 1833 and Coste’s Fantaisie Norma in 1838,^[19]Friedrich Lippmann: ‘Vincenzo Bellini’, in: Sadie, Stanley ed.: The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, London, Macmillan, 1980, vol.2, p. 447-448, 452; Éva Pintér-Lück: … Continue reading and with Donizetti’s Lucia di Lamermoor in Paris in 1839 and Coste’s Divertissement sur l’Opéra Lucia di Lamermoor in 1841.^[20]Mary Ann Smart: ‘Donizetti’, in: Sadie, Stanley, ed.: The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, London, Macmillan, 2001, vol. 6, p. 471-475; Bibliographie de la … Continue reading After this, his opera inspirations come to an end in favor of works inspired by his own memories of landscapes, cities, history and drama.

When Coste comes to Paris, the guitar is played at a high level, as can be seen in the many guitar methods of the time.^[21]Erik Stenstadvold: An Annotated Bibliography of Guitar Methods, 1760-1860, Organologia: Musical Instruments and Performance Practice no. 4, London, Pendragon Press, 2010, p. xi-xiii, 3-6; Ferdinando … Continue reading The instrument becomes very popular, but mainly among amateurs, making it difficult to publish more artistic compositions. For this reason Coste composes and arranges much popular music for pedagogical and commercial purposes, such as La Romanesca [opus 19b], waltzes by Strauss opus 7 and songs by Schubert.^[22]Thorvald Rischel: ‘Bibliographische Notizen zu den Gitarrenwerken von Napoléon Coste’, in: Die Gitarre, Berlin, 1927, Jahrgang VIII, Heft 7/8, [Coste-Heft] p. 47-51; Anik Devriès & … Continue reading As a guitar teacher he has many pupils and he makes a revision of Sor’s method in 1851, one of the last methods to be published in Paris, known as the Méthode Coste-Sor.^[23]Anik Devriès & François Lesure: Dictionnaire des éditeurs de musique français, Genève, Minkoff, 1979-1988, vol. II, p. 395396.

He enters upper class musical society upon joining the Société académique des Enfants d’Apollon in 1841 where he gives concerts, notably in 1846 with Le Tournoi opus 15, and the musical freemasons’ lodge Les Frères Unis Inséparables in 1843 where he joins in a concert in 1852, on his heptacorde, the seven-stringed guitar made for him by the luthier Lacote.^[24]Maurice Decourcelle: La Société des Enfants d’Apollon (1741-1880): programmes des concerts annuels…, Paris, Durand, 1881, p. 157: “Fantaisie et variations pour la guitare, composées … Continue reading Many of his compositions are intended for this instrument, which became the object of a quarrel between him and Lacote about royalty.^[25]Ferdinand Sor & N. Coste: Méthode complète pour la Guitare…, Paris, Schonenberger, 1851, p. 45; Petetin, E: heptacorde, in: Coste, Napoléon: ‘Méthode Complète pour la Guitare par … Continue reading His fame becomes international level and according to his dedications and letters he is visited in Paris by admirers from Stockholm, Copenhagen, Riga and St. Petersburg.^[26]“Napoléon Coste – späte Briefe 1867-1882, aus dem Nachlass von Georg Meier/Willy Meier-Pauselius, I. und W. Holzschuh, Hamburg, 2014.

Contest: Grande Sérénade

In 1856 the Russian guitar-playing nobleman Makaroff opens a contest for guitar composition and construction in Brussels, rather than in Paris, because of the Crimean war.^[27]Matanya Ophee: ‘The Memoirs of Makaroff, A Second Look’, in: Soundboard, vol. IX, no. 3, 1982, p. 230. Much is said about this event, chiefly in the self-published memoirs of this complacent individual, translated in Der Gitarrefreund in 1911 and The Guitar Review in 1946, after which Matanya Ophee took a second look in 1982.^[28]Nikolai Petrovich de Makaroff: ‘Guitare et Guitaristes’; in: Revue et Gazette musicale de Paris, vol. XXIV, no. 1, 4 I 1857, no. 1, p. 6-7; Makarow (Shtokman) (Stockmann) ‘Aus den … Continue reading Taking a third look into this matter after another 33 years, the news comes from the contemporary local newspapers and from his letters. Coste sends in five compositions, out of which his Grande Sérénade opus 30 takes second prize, coming in after Mertz’s Concertino.^[29]L’ Observateur Belge, Bruxelles, Coché-Mommens, 21e Année, no. 301, 28 X 1856:”Concours ouvert par M. de Makaroff. […]”; La Presse Belge, Journal politique, commercial et … Continue reading The other masterpieces of compositions he entered were Les Feuilles d’Automne opus 27 & 28, which he renamed and completed with opus 40 as Le Passage des Alpes in 1876, first inspired by literature, later by nature, and the Fantaisie symphonique opus 28[b], the counterpoint of the Symphonie Fantastique by Berlioz.^[30]Wolfgang Dömling: Hector Berlioz. Symphonie fantastique, München, Fink, 1985, p. 18, 56, 66-67; Coste-Degen, letter 15 VI 1858, Århus, Statsbiblioteket, Sffren Degens Papirer, Manuscript no.27b, … Continue reading He also entered La Chasse des Sylphes opus 29, where he expressed his inspiration from Shakespeare’s A Midsummer-Night’s Dream, in which the folksong of the fairies, the hunt with the horns and even the braying of the donkey can be identified. Remarkably, it has been said that his fifth entered composition Le Départ opus 31 was too late for the contest. In Coste’s composition the French troops make a glorious return on “29 Décembre 1855!…” as, significantly, is mentioned on Le Retour.

The question arises why Coste sent a such politically sensitive piece in the first place. The Russian nobleman would not have appreciated such an entry; as a retired soldier he must have been loyal to his country, the Russian fleet was destroyed, the country was humiliated internationally. Or, perhaps the secretary of the jury, Schott, the editor, protected Coste by not giving the piece to Makaroff before it was too late. Yet another question remains unanswered.

In March 1856 Makaroff writes the programme of the contest and sets a deadline of before October 1856 for entering both the compositions and the guitars.^[31]N. de Makaroff: ‘The Memoirs of Makaroff’, in: The Guitar Review, no. 5, 1948, p. 110. Now, half a year is quite a short period for such a thing and the deadline is extended to December. Makaroff may have already shared his idea of holding a competition with others on his first trip through Europe in 1851, in spite of what he writes in his memoirs. If that is the case, the composers and the luthiers have had ample opportunity to prepare themselves. The matter of this date leads one to surmise that at least Mertz was informed beforehand about the upcoming competition. Makaroff writes the rules for the competition in March and leaves St. Petersburg in July, with the four compositions by Mertz. That leaves Mertz with just a few weeks to write 23 pages of music, being in bad health on top of that, as he dies before the submitted works are judged.^[32]Makarow: ‘Aus den Lebenserinnerungen… ‘, in: Der Gitarrefreund, 12. Jahrgang, 1911 Heft 5 p. 47; Matanya Ophee: ‘The Memoirs of Makaroff, A Second Look’, in: Soundboard, … Continue reading Apart from this, the other composers must have been informed about the criteria the compositions needed to meet with regards to content, and these rules are not published anywhere. Makaroff must have approached them personally, despite of what he says in his memoirs. The result of the competition was a close call. But the analysis of the works entered by Mertz and those of Coste show the supremacy of the latter in the Romantic style of composition, music with references to nature, literature, politics and music itself.^[33]Astrid Stempnik: Caspar Joseph Mertz, Leben und Werk…, Frankfurt am Main, Lang, 1990, p. 379-382, 413.

Continuation: Feuilles d’Automne

Coste does not take advantage of this award to travel through Europe as a guitar virtuoso, but returns to Paris, and also, to his own regret, to the job he has as an administrator at the municipality, from which he is pensioned in 1875.^[34]Coste-Degen, letter 15 VI 1858: “Vous savez que j’avais à la préfecture de la Seine un petit emploi.” Jaworski, Roman: ‘Napoléon Coste 1805-1883, une histoire … Continue reading In this period he composes several pieces for the oboe, including an as yet undiscovered Cavatine for oboe, clarinet and guitar.^[35]Maurice Decourcelle: La Société académique des Enfants d’Apollon, programmes des concerts annuels…, Paris, Durand, 1881, p. 178: “Sérénade pour hautbois, clarinette et guitarre … Continue reading He now has fewer pupils, who he gives lessons to at their home. He has to publish his works by himself and moreover injures his left shoulder twice, first in 1863, then again in 1874, but nevertheless, in spite of the presumption of so many authors regarding this subject, he continues to perform in concerts.^[36]Coste-Degen, letter 17 X 1858: “Il vous a fait part de l’accident funeste qui depuis six mois bient, m’a privé de l’usage du bras gauche.”; Coste-Schult, letter 8 XII … Continue reading

His most famous 25 Études de Genre opus 38 are published by Richault c. 1872 and are dedicated to many of his pupils, among them Louise Olive Pauilhé, whom he marries in 1871, during the Prussian occupation of Paris.^[37]Anik Devriès & François Lesure: Dictionnaire des éditeurs de musique français, Genève, Minkoff, 1979-1988, vol. II, p. 369; Coste-Schult, letter 2 IX 1874: “un cahier de 25 Études que … Continue reading In his final years he still composes masterpieces as before, such as La Source du Lyson opus 47, which was named Fête Villageoise in an earlier stage, but changed in memory of his travels to the Jura in 1875, but also more didactic and easy pieces, which nevertheless are fine examples of his Romantic style.^[38]Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Département de la Musique, Coste, Nap.: La Source du Lyson, opus 47, Paris, Katto, 1878, In. fol., [Vm9 3560; Coste-Hallberg, letter 28 V 1878: “Je viens de … Continue reading In his last letter he complains about being struck with a cerebral congestion, but still tries to work on a new composition.^[39]Coste-Hallberg, letter 5 XII 1882: “Vous savez que j’ai éprouvé, il y a un an, une congestion cérébrale?”.

The composer dies on 14 January 1883 and is buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre in Paris.^[40]Paris, Archives de Paris, Acte de déces Napoléon Coste, 15 I 1883 Série V2E 5Mi 3/1256: “L’an mil-huit-cent-quatre-vingttrois, le quinze-janvier à trois heures du soir, acte de … Continue reading His works are collected by admirers but disappear from the concert repertoire. Only a few of his studies remain well known among guitarists, until Simon Wynberg publishes his complete works in 1981, arousing new attention for his oeuvre, which appears more and more often in concerts from that time on.^[41]‘Napoléon Coste’, in: Wynberg, Simon: The Guitar Works of Napoléon Coste, facsimile edition, vol. I-IX, Monaco, Chanterelle, 1981, 1983; reprint 2006-7.

Contents: Récréation du Guitariste

To give concrete form to the Romantic style in the analysis of the music of Coste, in this research formal characteristics and style elements have been distinguished. The historic aspect aside, the analysis presented here focuses on identifying and quantifying the Romantic aspects of his works. In the analysis of 45 of Coste’s works for guitar solo that can be dated, these elements are classified under musical criteria divided into five formal characteristics: Form, Melody, Harmony, Metre, Expression. Within these categories, style elements can be distinguished in an Identification System of Analytical Items:

Form: 1 phrase 2 cadenza
Melody: 3 figuration 4 ornament 5. idée fixe 6. chromatics
Harmony: 7 dissonance 8 modulation 9. prolongation 10 cadence 11. key12 arpeggio
Metre: 13 rhythm 14 time 15 tempo
Expression: 16 dynamics 17 articulation 18 rests 19 narration 20 folklore 21 onomatopoeia.

FORM	MELODY	HARMONY	METRE	EXPRESSION
1 phrase	3 figuration	7 dissonance	13 rhythm	16 dynamics
2 cadenza	4 ornament	8 modulation	14 time	16 dynamics
	6 idée fixe	9 prolongation	15 tempo	18 rests
	6 chromatics	10 cadence		19 narration
		11 key		20 folklore
		12 arpeggio		21 onomatopoeia

Doing so, a taxonomy IDSAI of elements emerges that makes a better understanding of the music possible for the guitar player and the audience, for the scholar and the professional, for the amateur and the devotee: the guitarist’s recreation in concept and contents in structural hearing.

Thirteen of these 21 formal characteristics and style elements will now be discussed, with examples taken from two of his most important works, Le Passage des Alpes opus 27, 28 & 40 and Fantaisie symphonique opus 28[b] to give some insight into the Romantic and Realistic aspects of Coste’s musical style:

A biography of Napoléon Coste in musical style through Le Passage des Alpes and Fantaisie symphonique. 

Form

The tendency among the Romantic composers with regard to musical form is to break the Classical periodicity, the four-bar schedule, where the temporal expectations of the listener are predictably set in phrases of equal length, now with phrases of different length, with the cadenza and with expolitio, for instance. While musical form in itself is highly developed by Classical composers, Romantic composers do not have any particular interest in it, apart from the tendency not to separate parts, but to unify them without an interval, to play them attacca, so to speak, making the form episodic. This emerges in the development away from the “theme and variations” genre towards the free fantasy form. Three examples will be discussed now, the three-bar phrase, cadenza and the expolitio.

Form: 1 phrase – short. In Coste’s Romantic compositions there are phrases that are shorter, of three bars, hastening the periodic motion, and, conversely, those that are longer, five or six bars, extending the periodic motion. An example of a three-bar phrase is found in the introduction of Le Passage des Alpes.

Form: 1 phrase – short. In Coste’s Romantic compositions there are phrases that are shorter, of three bars, hastening the periodic motion, and, conversely, those that are longer, five or six bars, extending the periodic motion. An example of a three-bar phrase is found in the introduction of Le Passage des Alpes.

Form: 1 phrase – expolitio. Another composition technique that influences the phrase is “expolitio”; in which, as a rule, one or two measures are immediately repeated, producing a certain tension. The term comes from one of the “figurae” in rhetorics, in which multiple sentences having more or less the same meaning are presented in combination. Of the 41 occurrences of this technique, this example can be found in Le Passage des Alpes opus 27, measures 34-35.

Form: 2 cadenza. A remarkable feature is the so-called cadenza, a shorter or longer passage, often in single notes in small note notation without bar division. In Baroque music the cadenza is the place between parts where the soloist can show his skills in an improvisation, as suits the composition. In Classical music they are found with the same intention at similar places in music, as in Giuliani’s concertos, but now completely notated. In Romantic guitar music, not only that of Coste, the cadenza is prescribed far more often, in other genres as well, even in études, but much shorter, as if they were sudden thoughts. As many as 82 of them can be found in the music of Coste, such as one in Le Passage des Alpes.

Melody

In melody the most important characteristics are figurations, showing the aspect of virtuosity in Coste’s music. Without being an imitator, his texture can be related to the figuration and passages of Chopin, his practice of chromaticism to that of Schubert, his high level of playing technique to that of Liszt – all this connected to his great control of the instrument, with which he expands the technical limitations, based on the principles of Sor. In his compositions Coste uses four kinds of features in the writing of melody; there are various specific types of passages, uses of ornaments, the idée fixe and the use of chromatics. Three examples will follow, the rocket, the parachute and the idée fixe.

Melody: 3 figuration – rocket. Many kinds of passages can be described as construction elements in Coste’s music. Two of these are easily recognizable, the first of which is the so-called “rocket”, an ascending arpeggio, generally played at high speed. The example out of 81 is from Le Passage des Alpes opus 27, measure 1.

Melody: 3 figuration – parachute. Then there is the so-called “parachute”, a descending arpeggio, also generally played at high speed. Out of the 54 occurrences in the works in consideration, this example is from Le Passage des Alpes opus 27, measure 15.

Melody: 5 idée fixe. The idée fixe, an oft-repeated motif, either rhythmic or melodic, which returns in the same way or altered, in different voices or pitches, as a reminiscence, is not used many times by Coste, just 22. Nevertheless, there is a remarkable one that occurs several times in various ways in Fantaisie symphonique opus 28[b], part I, measure 27, part IV, measure 29 and part V, measure 156. It is applied in a harmonic way and in arpeggio.

Harmony

The importance of Romanticism in Coste’s music is reflected mostly in aspects of harmony, in which complexity and intensity of texture are characteristic. His use of altered chords and dissonance can be related to that of Liszt, his harmonic progressions to those of Berlioz, his harmonic freedom to that of Chopin. His chromatic modulations, with or without a pivot tone, are comparable to those of Schubert. In this he follows the general development in Romanticism, but he gives his music a personal mark within this framework, knowing how to make optimal use of the resources the guitar offers him. The aspects modulation, progression and cadence will be discussed now.

Harmony: 8 modulation. Modulation is a means of increasing tension or creating opposing moods by changes or contrasts. Coste uses significant modulations 92 times in the 45 works selected in this research. Here is an example of a sudden change in a chromatic modulation to a contrasting key in Le Passage des Alpes from E to the chromatic submediant C.

Harmony: 9 prolongation. The most interesting phenomenon in Coste’s Romantic music is his use of harmonic progressions and prolongations. Coste quite often employs remarkable chord prolongations, on 146 occasions, whether chromatically ascending or descending. Four-voice prolongations also occur, while three-voice prolongations appear so often that they can almost be considered to be a structural element of his works. The four-voice prolongations are very characteristic, often with short passing-dominant progressions. They are typical for Coste’s music. These prolongations are characterized by a structural continuation of the local harmony, to which the other voices are coloring in contrast, and in this way producing an increasing or a decreasing tension.

The prolongation here appears in an ascending form, the tension increases. The harmonic function can vary from tonic, I6/4-V7-Vmaj7#5-I6/4, or to dominant, V-Im6/4-#I6/4b5-V7.

This type of ascending prolongation occurs many times in the music of Coste, starting with Fantaisie “Meyerbeer” opus 6 in 1837, and in the Méthode Coste-Sor in 1851, where an extended example can be found in no. 10, measure 9 on page 7. This is an evident example of Sor’s influence on Coste.

Harmony: 10 cadence. As Romantic composers try move away from the harmonic straitjacket of dominant and tonic, they seek more freedom in harmonic movement and modulation, that leads to more or less successful inventions. This tendency is audible in the compositions of Coste, in which he uses 287 remarkable cadences. Here is an example of a series of passing dominants, from Le Passage des Alpes.

Metre

In metre, measuring music in time, the presence of special rhythms that have a depictive effect, the use of special time indications and the intensive application of changes in time are the most important characteristics from which Romanticism can be deduced. Tempo indications and tempo changes also can play a role. A remarkable example will be discussed, the “abruptio”.

Metre: 13 rhythm – abruptio. With respect to time, Coste sometimes uses intensive changes in metre, rhythm and tempo, that can easily be identified, by merely playing or looking at the music. Rhythm is much more interesting: he often prescribes sudden changes of tempo and abruptio, a sudden standstill of movement, something he uses 37 times. This is illustrated with Fantaisie symphonique opus 28[b] III m. 18-22.

Metre: 15 tempo – free lyricism. Apart from that he often uses free lyricism in passages that are out of metre, such as in Le Passage des Alpes I m. 26.

Expression

In musical expression, dynamics and articulation contribute much to the emotion. Expression here refers to influencing the sound of the music. This involves dynamics, articulation or the manner of playing, including legatos which occur in almost every bar, ascending glissandos (a descending glissando does occur only once), and the prescription of rests, a feature Coste uses repeatedly, contrary to the contemporary tendency to make the sound of the tones as long as possible, the principle of legato playing. Two style elements will be discussed here, glissando and rests.

Expression: 17 articulation – glissando. Gliding from one note to another is an oft used means of expression by Coste. His works are full of them, with 486 examples in the 45 works under consideration. Only once there is a combination found of ascending and descending glissando, in Fantaisie symphonique opus 28[b], part IV, measure 44, written as a cadenza and played in free lyricism.

Expression: 18 rests. In the Romantic era composers try to control sound more and more. The beginning of a sound is influenced by indications for dynamics and articulation. The way a sound ends is also of great interest. However, this is not very common in guitar music, as players and composers like to utilize the optimal resonance. Also, the tendency in guitar making in this period is to enhance the volume, so why stop the sound? Despite this contradiction, on 69 occasions Coste indicates rests in one voice while in other voices the sound continues. This must be distinguished from the usual rhythmic notation of putting a 16th rest above a half note/minim bass in an arpeggio. The example is taken from Le Passage des Alpes opus 28, measures 75-78.

Where did Coste get this idea? There are two possible answers. First, the technique is used by Romantic composers, and Coste also played the piano and could have recognized it by studying other composers. Second, he uses this device from opus 15 onward in 1844 and by then he had already taken part in the so-called mixed concerts, where he played with oboist Frédéric Triébert, who became his friend and for whom he composed several pieces for oboe and guitar or piano. In woodwind music, giving directions for how to end a note is common. In this way the use of rests can be regarded as a Romantic feature.

From an aesthetic point of view, the criteria to qualify the expressions of Romanticism in guitar music in the 19th century are more general than specific. Historicism plays an important role in Coste’s programmatic works, which represent, just as with Berlioz, musical dramatics. This not only lies in the interpretation of his music, or it’s sentiment: it is based on the criteria of musical content. The Romantic sentiments and interpretations are in direct line with these. The general qualifications can be connected to formal characteristics and style elements, giving them meaning. In the Romanticism of Coste both folklore and onomatopoeia contribute to the narrative character of his music.

Expression: 20 folklore. Folkloric music is also of interest for Romantic composers, just as folksongs are for Romantic writers. Folk elements are used to create an atmosphere in some parts of works alluding to “folk”, parallel to the developments in Realism in fine arts in the 19th century of Courbet, who also comes from Ornans, which is striking for its relation with Coste. This music is mostly modeled on the bourdon, with or without contrasting voices. One example, out of 34, can be found in Fantaisie symphonique.

Expression: 21 onomatopoeia. Ideas on imitating the sound of other musical instruments come from Classical guitarists and are incorporated in Coste’s Romantic music. Their internal musical references are sometimes fully described. Sor used four of them as he explained in his Méthode: the horn, the trumpet, the oboe and the harp.^[42]Méthode pour La Guitare par Ferdinand Sor, Paris, L’Auteur, rue de Marivaux, no. 1, 1830, reprint Minkoff, Genève, 1981, p. 20-23. Coste copies this explanation in the Méthode Coste-Sor.^[43]Méthode Complète pour la Guitare par Fernando Sor rédigée et augmentée… par N. Coste, Paris, Schonenberger S. No. 1726 [1851], p. 14-15. Some of the compositions have programmatic titles, referring to nature, to cities, to history, to sentiments, to death and to folklore. It is possible to recognize what these titles refer to in the music itself. Among the onomatopoeia are the flageolet, the natural and artificial overtone, which allude to the sound of the flute, and the imitation of bells, which Coste applies 82 times in the works analyzed here. In Le Passage des Alpes one can hear the sound of the trumpet. This work seems to refer to Bonaparte’s journey through the Alpes in 1800.

Conclusion: Le Livre d’Or du Guitariste

The criteria exposed here are just 15 out of 130 musical examples found in this research of Coste’s works for solo guitar in analyzing 45 compositions. From these examples of formal characteristics and style elements made up in the taxonomy is used to analyze 45 of Coste’s works for guitar solo that could be dated. Knowing all this, if you take one particular piece, you can now discover the building-blocks of musical style and reference that are explained in the examples. Take a look in the first part of one of Coste’s finest compositions, the Fantaisie symphonique. What can you find?

A total of 11 style elements already in the first 29 measures alone! Elements that can be added to this list in the following parts include folk elements, series of passing dominants, sudden chromatic changes in tonality and a vanishing tonic. If you put the analyzed elements together, you can recognize the presence of Romanticism in the musical style of Napoléon Coste and point them out in the score. His musical style shows many elements that can be distinguished as expressions of Romanticism with aspects of Realism. Many of his works are inspired on biographical features, yet the conclusion must be that no direct relation between biographical topics and music can be identified. As titles and meaning are easily changed, the references should not be taken literally but literarily.

Programmatic music in the 19th century therefore is therefore the fantastic expression of the composer’s imagination in works of art in Romanticism and Realism, as two sides of the same medal. Matters involved here are nostalgia for the past, intensive experience of nature, intense expression of sentiment, admiration of virtuosity, inspiration in literature and the interest in folklore and tradition. These matters are audible in the music and are captured in the label programme music. This explanation may help the reader develop a deeper understanding of the concept of both Romanticism and Realism, and of how it is connected to the context of Coste’s life, expressed in an artistic way in the compositions he entered in the Brussels contest in 1856 and continued to write in his final years.

As far as musical content is concerned, the “theme and variation” genre aside, Coste did not compose by developing themes. Rather, he chose to continue the composition with new musical ideas or varied repetition of these, giving his works an episodic or rhapsodic character. Over time his compositions came to show more and more Romantic characteristics, but this development did not proceed in a linear fashion. There was a wave of periods with strongly Romantic and slightly Romantic compositions. The latter have a more didactic or commercial purpose. For all these aspects, Coste can be placed at the center of the musical developments appearing in Romantic music in Paris in the middle of the 19th century. He incorporates musical ideas in his music that are also being used by his contemporaries, in an original and innovative way. True enough, in his own words, a modest composer for a modest instrument, Napoléon Coste has succeeded in elevating Romantic guitar music to a high artistic level in his masterpieces.

The insight into the content of his music, as emerges in examples of formal characteristics and style elements may lead to a more faithful “re-creation of the guitarist” in playing his pieces. While Coste made works of the great masters accessible for the contemporary guitarist in his Livre d’Or opus 52, his own works are now made easy conceivable, and deliver a “golden book” for modern times.

Dr. Ari van Vliet, guitarist and musicologist

This article is based on the research in life and works of Coste, as published in: Napoléon Coste: Composer and Guitarist in the Musical Life of 19th-century Paris Biography, Thematic Catalogue & Compact Disc, translation and elaboration of the PhD dissertation at Utrecht University in The Netherlands. Edition: Zwolle, Cumuli Foundation, 2015 www.cumuli.nl

The biography is published in digital and paper edition as: Napoléon Coste: Composer and Guitarist in the Musical Life of 19th-Century Paris by Digital Guitar Archive (DGA-203) in 2018.

The audio examples are taken from the recording of the compositions performed by Ari van Vliet on a Kresse copy 2010 of Coste’s original Lacote heptacorde 1856, with Dlugolecki gut strings tuned at a’=435Hz, as released on the cd N. Coste, Les Souvenirs, Fantaisie Symphonique, Le Passage des Alpes, CGR 1204.